Smith's grading scale
You can find the full syllabus here
Class-generated 
guidelines
for having productive and respectful discussions in our seminar
Midterm exam study guide part two
Paper and presentation assignment
Note: Some of the readings will change from the first-day syllabus, but you will always have advance warning of at least one class session.
January 5. Religion, politics, and violence: definitions and debates.
January 7. When do religion, politics, and violence intersect? ( takeaways from readings and discussion
)
Read:
(2010). Focus especially on pp. 63-65 and 67. In this article, psychologist Renate Ysseldyk and her coauthors argue that religiosity functions not merely as a set of beliefs or practices but as a social identity that shapes meaning, belonging, and a person’s self-concept. Drawing from a perspective known as social identity theory, they show that religiosity’s effects on well-being, coping, and intergroup relations depend less on private belief than on the extent to which religion is experienced as a salient, group-based identity.
Behistun Inscription Links to an external site., 520 BCE. The Behistun Inscription is a monumental trilingual inscription commissioned by Darius I, king of the Achaemenid Empire (which was centered in modern-day Iran). The inscription recounts his seizure of the throne and his suppression of multiple rebellions. Combining royal propaganda with historical narrative, it legitimizes Darius’s rule through the god Ahura Mazda and justifies the brutal violence he inflicted on his enemies, including crucifying the leaders, flaying their followers, and hanging the stuffed hides for public display.
Sennacherib’s Annals Links to an external site., approximately 690 BCE. These are royal inscriptions that record the Assyrian king Sennacherib’s military campaigns, conquests, and building projects. The inscriptions present his reign as divinely sanctioned and irresistibly powerful. Notably, they describe his campaign in the Levant, including the siege of Jerusalem, in a triumphalist style that illustrates how imperial ideology and propaganda shaped Assyrian historical writing.
Karishma Vaswani, “Islamic State Isn’t Back in Asia, But its Ideas Endure,” Links to an external site. 2025. Vaswani, a journalist for the BBC, writes about the recent terrorist attack at Bondi Beach in Australia, the largest in the country’s history. She argues that while the Islamic State has largely lost its territory in Syria and Iraq and its organizational presence in Asia, its ideological appeal continues to resonate among small extremist networks and lone actors.
January 12. What are the most influential religious teachings on violence and nonviolence? ( takeaways from readings and discussion
)
Read:
Mark Juergensmeyer, “Nonviolence in the World’s Religions.”
In this chapter, sociologist Mark Juergensmeyer argues that traditions often associated with violence also contain robust ethical and theological resources for nonviolence, including concepts of compassion, self-restraint, and moral witness. Through comparative analysis, he shows that religious nonviolence is not merely pragmatic but can be grounded in deeply held cosmologies and visions of ultimate reality.
Bhagavad Gita, highly condensed version
. The Bhagavad Gita is one of Hinduism’s most influential texts, presenting a synthesis of dharma (duty), bhakti (devotion), and jñāna (knowledge) through a dialogue between Krishna, an avatar of the god Vishnu, and the warrior Arjuna. Offering a framework for understanding action, moral responsibility, and liberation within worldly life, the Bhagavad Gita has profoundly shaped Hindu ethical thought, devotional practice, and philosophical traditions.
Exodus 17:8-16 Links to an external site., Deuteronomy 25:17-19 Links to an external site., and 1 Samuel 15 Links to an external site.. These passages recount the Israelites’ history with the Amalekites, who are portrayed in the text as another ethnic group. God promises perpetual war against the Amalekites after they attack the Israelites. In 1 Samuel 15, God commands King Saul to kill all Amalekite men, women, children, and livestock. In both Judaism and Christianity, these passages are pivotal for their theology of divine command and covenantal obedience, as well as for enduring moral debates about prophetic authority, kingship, and the ethics of divinely sanctioned violence.
Sermon on the Mount, Matthew 5-7 Links to an external site.. The Sermon on the Mount is a foundational Christian teaching in which Jesus articulates a radical ethical vision centered on love of enemies, humility, mercy, and inner righteousness. It has profoundly shaped Christian moral theology and debates over nonviolence, social justice, and the demands of discipleship across Christian history.
Quran, Sura 9 Links to an external site.. This Sura addresses relations between the early Muslim community and surrounding groups, including treaty obligations, repentance, communal solidarity, and armed struggle in specific historical circumstances. It has played a central role in later Islamic legal and ethical debates concerning warfare and governance. Because of its uncompromising tone and emphasis on loyalty and conflict, it has also been frequently cited, contested, and reinterpreted across centuries of Muslim exegesis and political thought.
January 14. How have both religious and secular thinkers justified capital punishment? ( takeaways from readings and discussion
)
Read:
John Mascolo, “History of Death Penalty Laws,” Links to an external site. 2023. Written for the website FindLaw, Mascolo’s short overview will suffice for our purposes.
, 18th century BCE. (You can move quickly through the individual provisions, but be sure to read both the Prologue and the Epilogue.) One of the earliest and most famous written legal codes, the Code of Hammurabi was issued by the king Hammurabi to regulate social, economic, and criminal life in Babylonia (modern-day Iraq). Carved on a monumental stele and presented as divinely sanctioned by the god Shamash, it illustrates how law, kingship, and religion were intertwined in ancient Mesopotamian societies.
The Ethics & Religious Liberty Commission of the Southern Baptist Convention, “Capital Punishment: An Overview of Christian Perspectives,” Links to an external site. 2014. The Southern Baptist Convention is the largest Protestant denomination in the U.S. Its position on capital punishment is therefore worth investigating. The SBC thinks the Bible provides clear support for capital punishment.
Catechism of the Catholic Church, number 2267 Links to an external site.. This section describes the current position of the Catholic Church on capital punishment.
Wikipedia entry, "capital punishment in Islam." Links to an external site. A summary of how Islamic law (sharia) handles the question of capital punishment.
Death Penalty Focus, “The Death Penalty Globally.” Links to an external site. We learn here which countries still use capital punishment, and to what extent.
Death Penalty Information Center, “Arguments for and against the Death Penalty.” Links to an external site. A summary of the main arguments common in the public square on both sides of the issue.
January 21. Why did the Romans execute Jesus, destroy the Second Temple, and kill, exile, and enslave hundreds of thousands of other Jews? ( takeaways from readings and discussion
)
Read:
Titus Kennedy, “Roman Capital Punishment Links to an external site..” A summary of the offenses that brought capital punishment in the Roman Empire, the methods of execution used, who they were applied to, and why.
Mark 14:53-65, 15:1-15 Links to an external site.; Matthew 26:57-65, 27:1-2, 27:11-26 Links to an external site.; Luke 22:66-23:25 Links to an external site.; John 18:12-14, 18, 19-24: 18:28-19:16 Links to an external site.. Scholars generally agree that Mark was written first, at approximately 70 CE (several decades after the events it narrates). Matthew and Luke, in turn, were written in approximately 80-90 CE and used Mark as a source, in many places word for word. John was written last, most likely 90-100 CE. As you read the four accounts of the execution of Jesus, you’ll notice much overlap, which makes their separate details stand out. Most importantly for our purposes, all four sources agree that Pontius Pilate charged Jesus with being “King of the Jews.”
Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book 18, Chapter 3, 1-2 and 5, and Chapter 4, 1-2
(93-94 CE). Josephus, a Roman-Jewish historian and military leader, describes growing tensions in Judea under Roman rule in the 1st century CE. Josephus emphasizes how local Roman rulers repeatedly provoked resistance by violating Jewish customs and sensibilities. In Chapter 4 (sections 1–2), Josephus helps us understand how factionalism, prophetic figures, and oppressive rule would eventually culminate in a large-scale Jewish revolt against Rome.
Jewish Virtual Library, “Ancient Jewish History: The Great Revolt Links to an external site..” This entry explains how the Roman-Jewish conflict erupted into open rebellion in 66 CE. The revolt initially achieved surprising successes but ultimately provoked overwhelming Roman retaliation, culminating in the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple in 70 CE. It was a catastrophic turning point in Jewish history.
Jewish Virtual Library, “Ancient Jewish History: The Bar-Kokhba Revolt Links to an external site..” This entry describes the Jewish uprising against Roman rule from 132–135 CE. It was sparked largely by Emperor Hadrian’s policies, including plans to refound Jerusalem as a pagan city and restrict Jewish religious practices. Led by Simon bar Kokhba, the revolt briefly established an independent Jewish state before being crushed by massive Roman military force. The article stresses that the revolt’s defeat led to a widespread slaughter and enslavement, the devastation of Judea, the banning of Jews from Jerusalem, and a lasting transformation of Jewish life toward rabbinic forms and diaspora communities in a world without a Jewish homeland.
January 26. Why have Jews been subject to violence in other times and places? ( takeaways from readings and discussion
)
Watch/read:
Mika Ahuvia, first 48:35 of “The History of Jewish Difference and Anti-Judaism as Ideology” Links to an external site. (2020). (You can slip the Q&A period.) Ahuvia traces how Jews have been perceived as outsiders in Western cultural and intellectual history, thereby fueling hostile attitudes over many centuries. She situates anti-Judaism, especially during ancient times, as something that reaches beyond religious difference to encompass a larger ideology. The talk underscores the importance of understanding these ideological formations to confront enduring myths and their role in fueling antisemitism today.
Opening pages of Martin Luther, On the Jews and their Lies
(1543). Accusing Jews of moral depravity, blasphemy against Christ, and malicious influence over Christian society, Luther depicts Jews as obstinate, deceitful, and spiritually corrupt. In Luther’s eyes, Jews stand in conscious rebellion against God and therefore forfeit tolerance or protection within Christian lands. Later in the work, Luther urges Christian rulers to burn synagogues and Jewish schools, destroy Jewish homes, confiscate religious texts (especially the Talmud), prohibit rabbis from teaching, restrict Jewish travel, seize Jewish property, and compel Jews to perform forced labor.
The Wiener Holocaust Library, “Medieval Antisemitism.” Links to an external site. The next four pieces give a tight summary of the most important antisemitic ideas and events from the medieval period through the Holocaust. Although they were sometimes left alone, Jewish communities in Europe at other times faced expulsion, the Crusades, forced conversions, blood libel, and pogroms. For the Nazis, Jews were mainly a racial group, not a religious group. Nazi ideology built on prior ideas about nationalism, social Darwinism, and eugenics. Distinctive features of German politics of the 1920s and 1930s allowed the Nazis to come to power and carry out the Holocaust.
The Weiner Holocaust Library, “Modern Antisemitism” Links to an external site.
The Weiner Holocaust Library, “How the Holocaust Happened” Links to an external site.
The Weiner Holocaust Library, “Why the Holocaust Happened” Links to an external site.
January 28. How did Christians fare under Roman rule? How did polytheists fare under Christian rule? ( takeaways from readings and discussion
)
Read/watch:
Margaret Nutting Ralph, “Christian Persecutions in the Roman Empire,”
2012. Consistent with the consensus among historians, Ralph observes that Roman persecution of Christians was usually sporadic, locally driven, and rooted less in hatred than in political motives. Roman officials punished Christians for civic disloyalty, especially their refusal to worship the emperor and the state gods. The persecution later became systematic and empire-wide under Decius (249-251), Valerian (257-258), and especially Diocletian (303-311).
Letter of Pliny to the Emperor Trajan; letter of Emperor Trajan to Pliny
(111 CE). Pliny the Younger, governor of the province of Pontus and Bithynia, asks Emperor Trajan for guidance on how to deal with Christians. Pliny describes their practices and expresses uncertainty about whether mere beliefs should be punished. Trajan replies by establishing a precedent-setting policy: Christians should not be actively sought out, but those formally accused and refusing to recant should be punished.
Tertullian, Ad Nationes, ch. 9
(197 CE). Tertullian was one of the earliest and most influential Christian theologians writing in Latin. In Ad Nationes, Tertullian aims to counter common accusations that Christians are immoral, disloyal, and socially dangerous. The work also turns the critique back on Roman society, arguing for the moral failures and religious incoherence of polytheist traditions. In the excerpt we are reading, Tertullian writes that Romans thought the gods brought plagues, famines, earthquakes, and other public calamities because Christians did not worship them.
Tertullian, The Apology, ch. 24
(approximately 197 CE). Tertullian is known for sharply defined arguments on doctrine, morality, and church discipline, and for helping shape the vocabulary of Western Christianity. In The Apology, Tertullian defends Christians by arguing for their moral integrity, legal innocence, and the irrationality of persecuting them. The excerpt we are reading contains his argument questioning why Christians should be singled out for persecution.
Tertullian, To Scapula, ch. 2
(212 CE). In To Scapula, Tertullian addresses the Roman governor Scapula with a pointed warning against persecuting Christians. Tertullian combines legal argument, moral appeal, and veiled threats of divine punishment. The work portrays Christianity as morally beneficial and argues that persecution is both unlawful and dangerous to Roman rulers themselves. The excerpt we are reading contains what may be the earliest call in the Christian record for religious freedom as a human right.
Wikipedia entry, “Persecution of pagans under Theodosius I.” Links to an external site. This entry gives a useful summary of the actions taken under the emperor who made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire. It outlines a series of imperial laws that restricted traditional polytheist worship, closed or repurposed temples, and criminalized sacrifices and public rituals.
Religion for Breakfast, “Why Ancient Christians Destroyed Greek Statues,” Links to an external site. (2025). After becoming the official religion of the Roman Empire under Theodosius I, Christians routinely destroyed temples, statues, and other means through which polytheists worshipped their traditional gods. In this video, Andrew Henry, who holds a Ph.D. in religious studies, describes this phenomenon and explains the complicated motivations of Christians.
February 2. What are Christian heretics? Why and how did the Inquisition target them? ( Takeaways from readings and discussion
)
Read:
Catholic Answers, “The Great Heresies.” Links to an external site. Although the Catholic Answers website is not formally associated with the Catholic Church, its material usually adheres closely to official Catholic teachings. The entry we are reading defines heresy from a Catholic standpoint and summarizes what Catholics generally consider the most important heresies from throughout Christian history.
Augustine of Hippo, Letter 173 (416 CE) to Donatus, paragraphs 3 and 10; Letter 93 (408 CE) to Vicentius, ch. 2, paragraphs 6 and 8
. Augustine of Hippo was the most influential theologian in early Christianity. In these letters, he articulated a policy to deal with Christian heretics. He argued that coercion and even violence by Christian authorities could be legitimate means of correcting heresy. Augustine draws examples from the Bible to support his points, and he argues that persecution is acceptable if done for the side of truth.
Fourth Lateran Council (1215), Canon 3
. The medieval Church convened councils, usually comprised of bishops from different areas, to address disputes, promote unity, and articulate authoritative statements of doctrine. The Fourth Lateran Council also sought to reform clerical life, strengthen church discipline, and consolidate papal authority across Latin Christendom. Canon 3 covers heresy and requires secular rulers to assist the Church in suppressing heretics. The canon thus formalized the persecution of heretics as a shared responsibility of church and state, embedding repression into the legal and political order of medieval Europe.
History.com editors, “Inquisition.” Links to an external site. A quick summary of the Inquisition, the Church’s formal means to deal with heresy.
February 4. Midterm exam.
February 9. How did religion help justify the European and American conquest of North and South America? ( takeaways from readings and discussion
)
Read:
Pope Nicholas V, Dum Diversas Links to an external site. (1452). Dum Diversas authorized the Portuguese crown to wage war against “Saracens [Muslims], pagans, and other enemies of Christ,” and to conquer, subjugate, and reduce them to perpetual slavery. Issued in the context of Iberian expansion, the bull provided early papal legitimation for enslavement and violent domination of non-Christian peoples. It thereby helped lay the ideological groundwork for later European colonialism.
Pope Alexander IV, Inter Caetera Links to an external site. (1493). Framing expansion as a mission to spread Christianity among non-Christian peoples, Inter Caetera granted Spain papal authorization to claim and colonize newly encountered lands west of a designated meridian. The bull helped legitimize European imperialism in the Americas by linking territorial sovereignty, evangelization, and Christian supremacy. It became a foundational text for what later came to be called the Doctrine of Discovery.
(1510). This was a legal declaration read by Spanish conquerors to Indigenous peoples in the Americas. It asserted that God had granted authority over the world to the pope, who in turn had given the Americas to the Spanish crown. Warning that refusal would justify war, enslavement, and the seizure of land, the statement demanded that Indigenous communities accept Christian teaching and Spanish rule. In practice, it functioned less as genuine communication than as a ritualized moral and legal justification for conquest and violence.
Pope Paul III, Sublimis Deus Links to an external site. (1537). Sublimis Deus (1537) affirms that Indigenous peoples of the Americas are fully rational human beings capable of understanding and receiving the Christian faith, and therefore must not be enslaved or deprived of their liberty or property. Issued by Pope Paul III, the bull condemned theological justifications for Indigenous enslavement while urging peaceful evangelization rather than coercion. Although the bull did not reject Spanish sovereignty in its colonies, it sought to curtail the most brutal colonial practices.
John Winthrop, excerpt from “A Model of Christian Charity,”
also known as “City upon a Hill” (1630). One of the founders of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, Winthrop delivered this sermon to the first group of colonists. He presents a vision of the Puritan community as a divinely ordained covenant in which social hierarchy is natural but moral obligations bind rich and poor together. Winthrop famously frames the colony as a “city upon a hill” and warns that failure to uphold this covenant with God will bring divine judgment and public shame.
Mike Messina, “America’s Most Devastating Conflict: King Philip’s War” Links to an external site. (2014). Messina gives a quick summary of King Philip’s War (1675–1678). It was a brutal conflict between English colonists in New England and several Native American groups led by the Wampanoag leader Metacom, known to the English as King Philip. Sparked by long-standing tensions over land, sovereignty, and colonial expansion, the war quickly escalated into widespread violence against both Native and settler communities. It ended with the near destruction of Indigenous political power in southern New England and marked a turning point in favor of English colonial dominance.
Increase Mather, excerpt from A Brief History of the War with the Indians in New England
(1676). Mather, a Puritan clergyman, was a leading figure in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. He interprets King Philip’s War as God’s punishment of New England’s Puritan communities for their spiritual decline. Mather portrays Indigenous peoples as instruments through which God chastises the English, while also depicting them as savage adversaries who deserved violent retaliation.
John O'Sullivan, “Annexation”
(1845). As the first person to use the phrase “Manifest Destiny,” O’Sullivan argues that the United States is providentially ordained to expand across the North American continent. He portrays territorial growth as both inevitable and morally justified by liberty, progress, and democracy. O’Sullivan applies this logic specifically to Texas, insisting that U.S. expansion is sanctioned by God and history.
John Gast’s painting American Progress Links to an external site. (1872). The painting depicts westward expansion as a triumphant and divinely guided process, with settlers, railroads, and technology advancing west as Indigenous peoples and wildlife are driven back into darkness. American Progress visually encapsulates the ideology of Manifest Destiny by portraying American expansion as natural, benevolent, and civilizing, while obscuring the violence, displacement, and coercion that accompanied it.
February 11. What explains the similarities and differences in the violence directed at different religious minorities in U.S. history? ( takeaways from readings and discussion
)
Read:
PBS, “Anti-Mormon Violence.” Links to an external site. Anti-Mormon violence in the United States began in the 1820s and 1830s in New York, Ohio, and Missouri as hostility toward the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints escalated into expulsions, mob attacks, and state action. Conflict continued as Mormons moved west, including the 1844 murder of Joseph Smith by a mob in Illinois and an order by the Missouri governor for Mormons to be either expelled from the state or exterminated.
Zachary M. Schrag, “The Nativist Riots of 1844.” Links to an external site. These riots erupted in Philadelphia after nativist Protestants claimed that Catholics sought to remove the Protestant Bible from public schools, turning a policy dispute into violent street conflict. Nativist mobs attacked Irish Catholic neighborhoods, burned churches, and clashed with militia units, leaving dozens dead and large sections of the city in ruins.
Digital History, “Documents Relating to the Wounded Knee Massacre.” Links to an external site. The Wounded Knee Massacre occurred in 1890 when U.S. Army troops killed hundreds of Lakota men, women, and children during an attempt to disarm them at Wounded Knee Creek. Federal authorities had become deeply alarmed by the Ghost Dance, a Native religious movement promising the restoration of Indigenous lands and the disappearance of white settlers, which officials interpreted as a precursor to a violent uprising.
Wikipedia entry, “Jehovah’s Witnesses in the United States.” Links to an external site. During World War II, Jehovah’s Witnesses faced widespread mob violence, arrests, and harassment because they refused to salute the flag, serve in the military, or participate in patriotic rituals, which they believed violated their religious convictions. Local communities often attacked Witnesses physically, destroyed their meeting halls, and tolerated vigilantism, with police sometimes participating in or ignoring the abuse.
Oliver Conroy, “An Apocalyptic Cult, 900 Dead: Remembering the Jonestown Massacre, 40 Years on.” Links to an external site. The Jonestown Massacre occurred in 1978 when more than 900 members of the Peoples Temple died in a mass murder–suicide at the group’s settlement in Guyana. Under the leadership of Jim Jones, the movement combined apocalyptic religious beliefs, political radicalism, and intense social control, culminating in the forced poisoning of followers after the killing of a U.S. congressman and others.
EBSCO, “Anti-Muslim Violence in the U.S.” Links to an external site. Anti-Muslim violence in the United States increased after the September 11 attacks, when Muslims were widely stereotyped as security threats and targets of collective blame. This violence has included mosque arsons, assaults, and murders. Although typically carried out by individuals or small groups rather than mobs, these attacks reflect a broader pattern in which religious difference becomes fused with nationalism, transforming Muslim religious identity into a perceived threat warranting intimidation or violence.
Peter Smith, “Mass Shooter Found Guilty of Murdering 11 People at Tree of Life Synagogue in 2018.” Links to an external site. Antisemitic violence in U.S. history has ranged from sporadic assaults to organized intimidation by groups such as the Ku Klux Klan. In recent decades, Jews have been subject to lone-actor terrorism fueled by ideas portraying them as secret controllers of politics, media, or immigration. That violence includes the Tree of Life Synagogue shooting, when a gunman murdered eleven worshippers in Pittsburgh, the deadliest antisemitic attack in U.S. history.
February 18. What was the role of religion in 9/11 and other incidents often characterized as Islamic terrorism? ( takeaways from readings and discussion
)
Read:
Bruce Hoffman, “Religious Terrorism”
(2007). Hoffman argues that contemporary religious terrorism differs fundamentally from secular terrorist movements in its motivations, justifications, and lethality. He contends that religious terrorists view violence as a divinely sanctioned duty rather than a strategic tool, which removes moral constraints, broadens the category of legitimate targets, and helps explain the rise in mass-casualty attacks. Hoffman also emphasizes that religious terrorism is not confined to one faith tradition but has appeared across multiple religions, requiring analysts to understand theology, symbolism, and apocalyptic belief systems alongside political grievances.
History.com editors, “September 11 Attacks,” Links to an external site. 2025. The article outlines the destruction and loss of life, the collapse of the Twin Towers, and the immediate shock and national trauma that followed these unprecedented attacks on U.S. soil. The piece also highlights how the events of 9/11 reshaped American security policies and collective memory, marking a turning point that led to sweeping changes in domestic and international responses to terrorism
Osama bin Laden, “Letter to the American People,”
2002. Released after the September 11 attacks, the letter functions as propaganda to explain and justify al Qaeda’s violence to a Western audience. Framed as a moral and religious indictment of the United States, the letter blends selective readings of Islamic texts with political grievances about American power in the Middle East. In the letter, bin Laden portrays the United States as waging war against Islam through military presence in Saudi Arabia, support for Israel, sanctions on Iraq, and global political domination. He casts U.S. citizens as collectively responsible for their government’s actions, rejects distinctions between civilians and combatants, and presents jihad as a religious obligation rather than a political choice.
Cole Bunzel, "Explainer: Rival Islamists in 2022.” Links to an external site. Bunzel outlines the competitive dynamics among key Islamist militant group and gives an overview of their origins and development. Bunzel explains that although these organizations share a goal of establishing Islamic governance, their rivalries and doctrinal disagreements significantly influence patterns of violence and influence.
February 23. How has religion functioned as one factor in shaping claims, identities, and conflicts in Israel/Palestine?
Read:
of major events in Israel and the Palestinian territories. From the earliest extra-biblical reference to “Israel” through the present Israel–Hamas war, the land between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River has been shaped by shifting sovereignties, religious transformations, imperial conquests, nationalist movements, and competing claims to self-determination. To situate the current crisis within a much longer and layered historical trajectory, this timeline highlights pivotal political and military turning points.
Rabbi Ed Snikkoff, “Gush Emunim: Settling All the Land.”
Snitkoff provides an accessible overview of one of the most influential religious-nationalist movements in modern Israeli history. Snitkoff situates Gush Emunim in the aftermath of the 1967 Six-Day War, explaining how the movement drew on messianic interpretations of Jewish law and theology to argue that settling the biblical land of Israel was a divine obligation. He shows how these beliefs translated into organized political activism, illegal settlement-building in the occupied territories, and sustained pressure on Israeli governments.
Before reading the Hamas charter below, you would benefit from rereading the short section on Hamas in Cole Bunzel, "Explainer: Rival Islamists in 2022.”
Hamas, 1988 Charter
. This founding document defines the group’s religious worldview, political aims, and justification for armed struggle against Israel. The charter frames the Israeli–Palestinian conflict as a cosmic and religious battle, portraying all of historic Palestine as an Islamic trust that cannot be ceded or negotiated away. It explicitly rejects peaceful compromise, endorses violent jihad as a religious duty, and collapses distinctions between civilians and combatants. The document is also notable for its reliance on conspiracy theories and antisemitic tropes.
Hamas, 2017 Charter Links to an external site.. This revised political document attempts to moderate the group’s public image while preserving its core commitments. Unlike the 1988 Charter, the later one distinguishes between Judaism as a religion and Zionism as a political project. It avoids explicitly antisemitic language while continuing to frame the state of Israel as illegitimate. The document accepts, in pragmatic terms, the possibility of a Palestinian state along the 1967 borders, but it explicitly rejects recognition of Israel and does not renounce armed struggle.
International Association of Genocide Scholars, “IAGS Resolution on the Situation in Gaza,” Links to an external site. July 28, 2025. The world’s leading association of genocide researchers concluded that Israel’s policies and actions in the Gaza Strip meet the legal definition of genocide under Article II of the 1948 United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. The statement drew significant attention and media coverage around the world.
February 25. Why did the partition of India lead to mass violence between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs?
Watch:
Saglain Khan, The Brutal Story of Partition (documentary Links to an external site.). Focusing on the human cost of political decisions, director Saglain Khan examines the 1947 partition of India through survivor testimony, archival footage, and historical analysis. The documentary emphasizes how religious nationalism, rushed decolonization, and state collapse produced mass displacement, communal violence, and lasting trauma for Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs alike.
March 2. Student presentations, part I.
March 4. Student presentations, part II.
March 9. Student presentations, part III.
March 11. Concluding class.
March 17, 2:30-4:20. Final exam.